Copyright 1992, 1980 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
This book was set in New Century Schoolbook by Waldman Graphics, Inc. The editors were Susan J. Tubb and Margery Luhrs; the designer was Jo Jones;
the production supervisor was Richard A. Ausburn. The photo editor was Kathy Bendo; the photo researcher was Elyse Rieder.
New drawings were done by Precision Graphics. Von Hoffmann Press, Inc., was printer and binder.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Pubiication Data Russell, John Blair, (date).
Preface xv
CHAPTER 1 PRELIMINARIES AND PREMISES 1
1-1 Chemistry: What, Why, and How? 2
1-2 Scientific methodology 3
1-3 Matter 6
1-4 Changes in matter 12
1-5 Energy 15
1-6 Numbers, their use and misuse 18
1-7 Metric units 25
1-8 Solving numerical problems 28
Summary 35
Problems 36
CHAPTER 2 FORMULAS/ EQUATIONS, AND STOICHIOMETRY 41
2-1 The microstructure of matter 42
2-2 Chemical formulas 42
2-3 Atomic and other masses 46
2-4 The mole 48
2-5 Compound stoichiometry 52
2-6 Chemical equations 67
2-7 Reaction stoichiometry 60
2-8 Solution stoichiometry 68
2-9 The mole: additional comments 76
2-10 Chemical nomenclature: a first look 76
Summary 80
Problems 81
CHAPTER 3 THERMOCHEMISTRY 87
3-1 The first law of thermodynamics 88
3-2 Seat and enthalpy 91
3-3 Calorimetry 95
3-4 Thermochemical equations 99
3-5 The combustion of coal: a thermochemical illustration 104
Summary 106
Problems 107
CHAPTER 4 GASES 111
4-1 Variables used for describing gas behavior 112
4-2 Pressure-volume relationship: Boyle's law 115
4-3 Temperature effects: Charles' law 121
4-4 The ideal-gas law 127
4-5 Other properties of the ideal gas 132
4-6 Kinetic-molecular theory 140
4-7 Gas stoichiometry 145
4-8 Real gases 149
Summary 155
Problems 156
CHAPTER 5 THE ATOM 161
5-1 Early models of the atom 162
5-2 The nuclear atom 168
5-3 Atomic masses 173
5-4 Electrons in atoms 175
Summary 186
Problems 186
CHAPTER 6 ELECTRONS 189
6-1 The quantum-mechanical model and electronic energies 190
6-2 Waves and particles 204
6-3 Standing waves 208
6-4 The wavelike properties of electrons 212
6-5 Quantum numbers 222
Summary 225
Problems 226
CHAPTER 7 chemical periodicity 229
7-1 The discovery of the periodic law 230
7-2 Periodicity in electronic configurations 234
7-3 Periodicity in atomic properties 238
7-4 Periodicity in physical properties 247
7-5 Periodicity in chemical properties 249
Summary 258
Problems 259
CHAPTER 8 Chemical bonding 263
8-1 Ionic bonding 264
8-2 Covalent bonding 275
8-3 Electronegativity 285
8-4 Bond energies 290
8-5 Electronic bookkeeping, part I: formal charges 293
8-6 Electron-pair repulsion 296
8-7 The polarity of molecules 302
Summary 308
Problems 309
CHAPTER 9 SOUDS 313
9-1Solids: some preliminary observations 314
9-2 X-ray diffraction 315
9-3 The crystal lattice 319
9-4 Close packing 323
9-5 Bonding and properties of solids 330
9-6 Lattice energy 334
9-7 Defects in crystals 336
Summary 340
Problems 340
CHAPTER 10 LIQUIDS AND CHANGES OF STATE 345
10-1 Liquids 346
10-2 Equilibrium and vapor pressure 348
10-3 The variation of vapor pressure with temperature 352
10-4 Solid-liquid equilibria 358
10-5 Changes of State 360
10-6 Equilibrium and Le Chatelier's principle 364
10-7 Phase diagrams 371
Summary 374
Problems 375
CHAPTER 11 SOLUTIONS 379
11-1 General properties of solutions 380
11-2 Types of solutions 380
11-3 Concentration units 382
11-4 Solubility 386
11-5 Colligative properties 398
11-6 Electrolytes 412
Summary 421
Problems 422
CHAPTER 12 AQUEOUS-SOLUTION REACTIONS 427
12-1 Acid-base reactions 428
12-2 Precipitation and complexation reactions 434
12-3 Net equations for aqueous-solution reactions 438
12-4 Electronic bookkeeping, part II: oxidation numbers 445
12-5 Electron-transfer reactions 449
12-6 Solution stoichiometry 459
Summary 467
Problems 467
CHAPTER 13 Chemical kinetics 473
13-1 Reaction rates and mechanisms: a preview 474
13-2 The rate law 479
13-3 Collision theory 494
13-4 The activated complex 504
13-5 Reaction mechanisms: an introduction 506
13-6 Catalysis 507
Summary 510
Problems 511
CHAPTER 14 chemical equilibrium 517
14-1 Homogeneous chemical equilibria 518
14-2 The law of chemical equilibrium 523
14-3 Kinetics and equilibrium 530
14-4 Heterogeneous chemical equilibria 533
14-5 The variation of К with temperature 534
14-6 Equilibrium calculations 537
Summary 543
Problems 543
CHAPTER 15 Aqueous solutions: acid-base equilibria 549
15-1 The dissociation of weak acids 550
15-2 The dissociation of weak bases 560
15-3 The dissociation of water 565
15-4 Hydrolysis 569
15-5 Acid-base indicators and titration 578
15-6 Buffers 589
CHAPTER 13 Chemical kinetics 473
13-1 Reaction rates and mechanisms: a preview 474
13-2 The rate law 479
13-3 Collision theory 495
13-4 The activated complex 504
13-5 Reaction mechanisms: an introduction 506
13-6 Catalysis 507 507
Summary 510
Problems 511
CHAPTER 14 chemical equilibrium 517
14-1 Homogeneous chemical equilibria 518
14-2 The law of chemical equilibrium 523
14-3 Kinetics and equilibrium 530
14-4 Heterogeneous chemical equilibria 533
14-5 The variation of К with temperature 534
14-6 Equilibrium calculations 537
Summary 543
Problems 543
CHAPTER 15 aqueous solutions: acid-base equilibria 549
15-1 The dissociation of weak acids 550
15-2 The dissociation of weak bases 560
15-3 The dissociation of water 565
15-4 Hydrolysis 569
15-5 Acid-base indicators and titration 578
15-6 Buffers 589
15-7 Simultaneous acid-base equilibria 593
Summary 597
Problems 599
CHAPTER 16 aqueous solutions: solubility and complex-ion equilibria 603
16-1 The solubility of ionic solids 604
16-2 Precipitation reactions 612
16-3 Complex-ion equilibria 615
16-4 Simultaneous equilibria 622
Summary 627
Problems 628
CHAPTER 17 Chemical thermodynamics 631
17-1 The first law: a reconsideration 632
17-2 The second law 640
17-3 Gibbs free energy and spontaneous change 647
17-4 Changes in entropy and Gibbs free energy 651
17-5 Thermodynamics and equilibrium 657
Summary 662
Problems 662
CHAPTER 18 ELECTROCHEMISTRY 667
18-1 Galvanic cells 668
18-2 Electrolytic cells 676
18-3 Standard electrode potentials 688
18-4 Free energy, cell voltage, and equilibrium 694
18-5 The electrochemical measurement of pH 700
18-6 Commercial galvanic cells 704
Summary 708
Problems 708
CHAPTER 19 COVALENT BONDING 713
19-1 Valence-bond theory and orbital overlap 714
19-2 Hybrid orbitals 717
19-3 Molecular-orbital theory 727
Summary 739
Problems 740
CHAPTER 20 THE NONMETALS 743
20-1Inorganic nomenclature 744
20-2 Hydrogen 745
20-3 Oxygen 750
20-4 Water 757
20-5 The halogens 758
20-6 The chalcogens, especially sulfur 769
20-7 The group-VA nonmetals: nitrogen and phosphorus 778
20-8 Carbon 790
20-9 The noble gases 796
Summary 798
Problems 799
CHAPTER 21 THE REPRESENTATIVE METALS AND METALLOIDS 805
21-1 The alkali metals 806
21-2 The alkaline-earth metals 811
21-3 The group-IIIA metals 820
21-4 Other representative metals 825
21-5 The metalloids 829
Summary 839
Problems 840
CHAPTER 22 THE TRANSITION METALS 845
22-1 Electronic configurations 846
22-2 General properties 846
22-3 Complex ions: general structure and nomenclature 850
22-4 Bonding in complexes 854
22-5 The stereochemistry of complex ions 868
22-6 Descriptive chemistry of selected transition elements 872
Summary 891
Problems 893
CHAPTER 23 Organic chemistry 897
23-1 Saturated hydrocarbons 899
23-2 Unsaturated hydrocarbons 907
23-3 Aromatic hydrocarbons 912
23-4 Functional groups 915
23-5 Alcohols 916
23-6 Ethers 921
23-7 Aldehydes 922
23-8 Ketones 925
23-9 Carboxylic acids 927
23-10 Esters 930
23-11 Amines 932
23-12 Enantiomerism in organic compounds 934
23-13 Carbohydrates and proteins 935
Summary 940
Problems 941
CHAPTER 24 nuclear processes 945
24-1 Radioactivity 946
24-2 The kinetics of nuclear decay 950
24-3 Nuclear reactions 953
24-4 Nuclear stability 955
24-5 Fission, fusion, and nuclear binding energy 958
24-6 Chemical applications of radioactivity 963
Summary 966
Problems 967
APPENDIXES
Glossary of Important Terms A-l
Units, Constants, and Conversion Equations A-13
B-l. Units A-13
B-2. Physical Constants A-14
B-3. Conversion Equations A-14
Chemical Nomenclature A-15
C-l. Trivial Names A-15
C-2. Systematic Inorganic Nomenclature A-15
C-3. Systematic Organic Nomenclature A-21
Mathematical Operations A-24
D-l. Linear Equations and Their Graphs A-24
D-2. Quadratic Equations A-24
D-3. Logarithms A-25
Clark's Method of Writing Lewis Structures A-26
Vapor Pressure of Water A-28
Selected Thermodynamic Properties at 25°C A-29
Equilibrium Constants at 25°C A-31
H-l. Dissociation Constants of Weak Acids A-31
H-2. Dissociation Constants of Weak Bases A-31
H-3. Solubility Products A-32
Standard Reduction Potentials at 25°C A-33
J. Answers to Selected Numerical Problems A-35
Index 1-1